Category The World Book – 1919

The Fly

Bran

My daughter has this thing about bugs. The sound of a nearby fly can send her into a panic; the sight of one causes a full-blown meltdown. Summer approaches rapidly, and we have begun to see the occasional housefly in our home and with them a proportionate increase in her outbursts. We wish she didn't react quite so strongly to their presence - in the age of modern sanitation, a fly here or there is not a major problem, but her reaction would be quite justified at the beginning of the 20th century, according to the classic encyclopedias of the time.

The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, in its article on the "Fly" (vol. 10, p. 584), refers to an interesting study conducted by the Department of Agriculture in 1909: Mr L. O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau of Entomology U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in 1900 he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different parts of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808 were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is of the widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and dooryard filth, so great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially cholera and typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent source of danger; and various sanitary regulations have been made, or precautions suggested, for getting rid of it. These are discussed by Mr Howard in the paper referred to, but in brief they all amount to measures of general hygiene, and the isolation, prompt removal, or proper sterilization of the animal or human excrement in which these flies breed.

Howard is also the leading authority quoted in the 1924 Encyclopedia Americana (vol. 11, pp. 352-354). Below are some excerpts from the article "Flies:"

A type of the group [those which cause "serious evils to mankind"] is found in the house-fly (Musca domestica), which represents the great family Muscidæ, in which most of the familiar flies about houses and stables are included, and its life-history represents that of its kind generally. Its eggs are laid preferably on horse-manure, but also on human or other excrement, decaying vegetables, etc., and hatch in six or eight hours, producing maggots. These mature in four or five days, when their skins harden and turn brown, forming a puparium, or case, within which the true pupa forms, and five days later gives birth to a perfected fly. Thus a total life cycle requires in midsummer only about 10 days, and a dozen generations may thus be born in warm climates within a single season. As each fly deposits on the average 120 eggs, and as the maggots of 1,200 house-flies may be sustained by a pound of manure, the possible rapidity of their multiplication is apparent. Most flies live but a few weeks, and toward the end of the season they die with great rapidity, becoming infested with reddish mites, which suck their juices, or with fatal fungous diseases. (See Fungi). In warm houses a few may survive a winter, but as a rule all adult flies die in the fall, and the species survives and recovers in the spring from the eggs or pupa left over winter in the manure-heap or other feeding-place. It is plain that attempts to mitigate the annoyance and danger resulting from many flies may best be directed toward the destruction of their eggs and young. That such destruction is desirable and the duty of society is plain when one considers the vast amount of injury these insects may do. [...]

Dr. L. O. Howard, of the United States Department of Agriculture, has given special attention to this matter, and has found that no less than 77 species of flies frequent human excrement and are therefore liable to obtain and carry disease germs. As the innumerable insects themselves are beyond reach, the measures for protection must be preventative. Dr. Howard says that in order to avoid epidemics of typhoid fever it is necessary to abolish the box privy, prevalent in rural and village districts, and substitute earth-closets, where water-closets cannot be installed; to place stable manure in receptacles and treat it with chloride of lime to destroy the maggots, throwing a shovelful over each day's addition. Pantries, dining-rooms and kitchens should be carefully screened to keep out flies; and especial pains taken in summer to keep flies out of sick-rooms. Detailed instructions and the reasons for them are given by Howard in his pamphlet, 'How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts,' issued as Farmers' Bulletin 155, by the United States Department of Agriculture.

The article on the "Fly" in the 1919 World Book (vol. 4, pp. 2231-2235) is quite sensational and very thoroughly illustrated, but it is also charming in its optimistic belief that most people will rally behind science and facts to come together and solve large societal problems. I've reproduced the full article with pictures below:

The road from garbage can to baby's food

Fly. "A fly," wrote a small boy who had had a lesson in school on the harm the little pest can do, "is more dangerous than a lion, but I would rather have a fly bite me than a lion." Not many years ago flies were looked upon as a necessary nuisance; they were troublesome, but they were not dangerous, people thought, and there was no possible way of getting rid of them. A half-century ago it was common at mealtime during the summer months to have a servant or one of the children of the family stationed near the table with a leafy branch, wherewith to wave away the flies which were thick in the dining-room. A little later nettings were introduced, and then came wire screens, to keep out as many as possible; but to-day such measures are looked upon as all too passive, because the deadly nature of the insect is understood, and regular crusades are instituted against the fly.

But why? What can this little insect do that makes it as "dangerous as a lion," and has caused "Swat the fly" to become a slogan? Before discussing this question it is necessary to learn something about the insect.

What a Fly Is. The name fly is applied to many different kinds of insects; in fact, more than 40,000 species are known to-day, but they all have certain traits in common. The most noticeable of several resemblances is the fact that they have but two wings; the scientific name for flies is Diptera, which means two-winged. No other known insect has two wings except one little scale-insect. The wings of flies are always transparent, never folded as are the wings of grasshoppers, and they have prominent lengthwise veins. Instead of hind wings most flies have two small, rod-like organs which probably help the insect to balance and steer itself in flight. The head of a fly is usually small; by far the larger part of it is made up of two wonderful eyes, which are often composed of thousands of facets which enable their owner to see in almost any direction. A few species are provided with sucking mouth-parts, but fortunately the common house fly is not thus equipped.

The Commonest Fly. Of the true flies, a number of groups are very well known, as the gnats, blow flies, midges and mosquitoes; and the name is often applied to certain insects to which it does not really belong, as the dragon fly and the May fly. But there is one true fly which is so common all about the haunts of man that it has received the name of domestic fly, or house fly, and it is this little creature which is meant when the term fly is used without modification.

EGGS OF A FLY
Greatly enlarged.

Life History. There are some very interesting things about the house fly. Every child has watched with wonder its progress across the ceiling, to which it is held by the suckerlike hairs on its feet; but nothing about it is more remarkable than the amazing rapidity with which it breeds. If there were alive in the world at the beginning of April but one fly, and that an egg-laying female, there might be six months later, if all the eggs laid came to maturity, no fewer than 131,220,000,000,000,000,000 flies — over 131 quintillions of descendants of that one first fly! What wonder is it that a neighborhood which seemed free from flies may in a week or two be swarming with them!

DEVELOPMENT OF A FLY (a) Egg; (b) larva; (c) pupa; (d) mature insect.

The female lays her eggs in any warm, damp, decaying matter, whether it be the manure of a stable, the filth of a pig's pen or the fermenting garbage; and there the little white maggots are hatched out. Soon these change into pupae (plural of pupa, the intermediate state), and in from eight to fourteen days emerge as mature flies. Led by its strong sense of smell, the young fly hastens from its filthy hatching place to the nearest food-supply spot — perhaps an imperfectly screened kitchen or the baby's milk, where it begins to be indeed a deadly enemy.

Harm Done by Flies. Occasionally some person objects that the fly is receiving more than its share of censure, claiming that a little stingless insect cannot be one of the most dangerous things in the world; but doctors and scientists are ready with facts to prove the contrary. It is no longer a theory but a well-established fact that flies cause many of the cases of typhoid; that "summer complaint" might well be called "fly complaint," so clearly is it spread by flies; that tuberculosis and all filth diseases are carried by it; that domestic animals owe many of their diseases to its agency — in fact, that flies cost in Canada and the United States hundreds of millions of dollars and scores of thousands of lives every year.

How they accomplish all this is very evident, since their hairy legs are peculiarly well fitted for carrying germs and filth particles from their favorite breeding-haunts to food often left exposed for them to walk upon. More than 6,000,000 bacteria, it has been estimated, can be carried by one fly on its body as it flies from the manure pile or the spittoon or the sick room to the baby's lips or to the sugar bowl. It is not chance that the fly season coincides with the season of dangerous intestinal diseases and, very largely, with the typhoid season; it is a clear case of cause and effect.

Facing the Fly Problem. The average person feels helpless and hopeless in facing the question of what is to be done about it. "There always have been flies, therefore there always will be flies," is his opinion, despite any little efforts on his part. Serious, scientific men have faced the problem in a sober-minded, scientific manner, and have found ways and means which, if generally adopted, would do much toward ridding the world of this pest. In agricultural communities, such favorable breeding-grounds as manure heaps and open swill barrels can be replaced by covered manure bins and screened-top barrels, and the flies be kept down; cities and villages, however, may, with proper care, be flyless.

THE HOUSE FLY
Greatly enlarged.

Some of the remedies are easy to apply and have been employed for many years. Windows and doors may be screened and "sticky fly-paper" may be placed to catch those which do slip in; but this is not beginning at the source. First of all, the fight must be carred out-of-doors. "why not," asked a thirteen-year-old boy, who had become interested in the extermination of flies, "put all the flies in jail and let ourselves out?" The annual cost of screening windows and doors, estimated for the United States and Canada at $15,000,000 would, if properly expended, make screens unnecessary.

Preventive Methods. The first step in a definite campaign is to kill the winter fly — the occasional specimen that survives in a sheltered place and in the spring crawls out to bask and gain strength in the sunshine. Kill it without pity — it may be that thereby the world is being rid of countless millions of summer flies. Until these winter flies have obtained abundant food they cannot lay eggs, and as they are extremely hungry they are easier to catch in traps than at almost any other time. If every family in a community would in the early spring days get rid of every fly about the premises there would be no summer campaign, and noonday meals could be eaten on unscreened porches with pleasure and with safety.

Next, breeding-places should be done away with, so far as possible, by providing proper sanitation and by banishing all unnecessary garbage and rubbish. Refuse should be buried or covered with kerosene and burned. Outside slop barrels should be scalded, and in communities where domestic animals are raised care should be taken to have them and the premises kept in a sanitary condition. Much of this work can be done by families in and about their homes; much remains to be done by the public authorities, who can best be urged to a proper conception of their task by enlightened public opinion. Indeed, it may be said that only as community feeling is aroused can really effective work be done, for what good does it do a family to rid its own home of flies so long as the meat it gets from the market and the butter and milk it gets from the dairies are contaminated by their presence?

ENLARGED HEAD OF A FLY, FRONT VIEW
The two large areas studded with thousands of lenses are compound eyes. There are three simple eyes at the top, in the center; the fly can therefore see in every direction.

The Active Fight. If the work of prevention by means of killing winter flies and destroying breeding-places is begun early enough, it is all-sufficient; but even if a few flies have been allowed to reproduce themselves and their descendants in their turn have been allowed to breed, the fight is not yet hopeless, though it is rendered more difficult.

THE FOOT OF A FLY
(a) Lower joints of the foot, one hundred sixty times actual size.
(b) The part of (a) shown within the dotted area, magnified 1,500 times its actual size. The deadly typhoid bacilli are shown on the tip. The drawing is reproduced from a photograph.

It remains but to catch the flies as soon as possible after they have emerged, before they have reached the egg-laying stage; for it is well to remember at every stage of the campaign that the fly must feed for two weeks before it can lay its first eggs. And these young flies should be caught out-of-doors, before they have had time to carry filth germs into the house. Somewhere near every house, whether it be in the city or in the country, there is a garbage pail — the flies' favorite feeding-ground. Now if, as they swarm about this, they can be coaxed by some especially attractive bait into a trap which stands above the garbage pail, the work is done, in large measure. Then if another trap be placed outside the screen door, and another in the stable window or barnyard, it is not likely that many flies would feed through the whole two weeks without getting caught. The "catch" may be quickly killed by immersion in boiling water, or by fumigation with sulphur. Humane methods should be employed, even with flies.

Traps may be bought at a reasonable price, or they may be constructed at home still more cheaply. Any box or other receptacle of transparent material, provided with a crack at the bottom and baited with banana peel, sugar and vinegar, meat or other food attractive to flies, will serve the purpose. One point must be borne in mind — the crack at the bottom must not be too wide, or the flies will crawl out after they have fed and then proceed to lay their eggs. The crack should never be more than a quarter of an inch in width and should open up toward the bait and not down, as flies show a strong tendency to crawl upward toward the light.

Summary. It may sound at first somewhat visionary — this campaign which has as its aim to "get the last one" — but it has been proved to be sane and practical. Small towns have rid themselves almost completely of the pests; big cites have done such effective work that in the huge public markets no more than half a dozen flies may be found at one time; and neighborhoods have won for themselves relief from the nuisance when other parts of the city have swarmed with flies. These insects do not travel great distances, and a neighborhood campaign will be effective even though the town as a whole does not take up the work. It can be done — that much is certain; but it will be done only when the people are convinced of the absolute necessity. When a housewife begins to feel that it is a disgrace, a sure sign of untidiness and careless housekeeping to have even one fly about; when the storekeeper or dairyman is made to realize that he is looked upon as a spreader of disease if he does not protect his products; when a community really appreciates the fact that not only unpleasantness but sickness and death result from the presence of flies — then, and not till then, the campaign will be undertaken in earnest. The United States Department of Agriculture has shown an active interest in the problem and has for distribution bulletins which discuss the fly in all its phases, suggesting effective means of combating the danger the fly creates.

W.A.E.

Consult Cragin's Our Insect Friends and Foes; Comstock's Insect Life; Ross's The Reduction of Domestic Flies.

Vampire

Bran

Halloween approaches, so let's take a peek at a classic creature of the night: the vampire!

Definition and Etymology

The oldest English-language dictionary I own with a "vampire" entry is The Century Dictionary from 1891. This dictionary has an encyclopedic thoroughness and wonderful etymological information. Here is its entry on "vampire," from volume 6, page 6693:

vampire (vam'pīr), n. and a. [Formerly also vampyre; < F. vampire = Sp. Pg. vampiro = D. vampier = G. vampyr = Sw. Dan. vampyr (NL. vampyrus), < Serv. vampir = Bulg. vampir, vapir, vepir, vupir = Pol. wampir, also upior = Little Russ. vampyr, vepyr, vopyr, opyr, upyr, opir, uper = White Russ. upir = Russ. vampirŭ, also upirĭ, upyrĭ, obyrĭ (the Pol. wampir, Russ. vampirŭ, appar. < Serv.), a vampire; cf. North Turk. uber, a witch.] I. n. 1. A kind of spectral being or ghost still possessing a human body, which, according to a superstition existing among the Slavic and other races on the lower Danube, leaves the grave during the night, and maintains a semblance of life by sucking the warm blood of living men and women while they are asleep. Dead wizards, werwolves, heretics, and other outcasts become vampires, as do also the illegitimate offspring of parents themselves illegitimate, and any one killed by a vampire. On the discovery of a vampire's grave, the body, which, it is supposed, will be found all fresh and ruddy, must be disinterred, thrust through with a whitethorn stake, and burned in order to render it harmless.

2. Hence, a person who preys on others; an extortioner or blood-sucker. — 3. Same as vampire-bat. — 4. Theat., a small trap made of two flaps held together by a spring, used for sudden appearances and disappearances of one person. — False vampire, a leaf-nosed bat of South America, erroneously supposed to suck blood. See vampire-bat (b)(1), and cut under Vampyri. — Spectacled vampire. Same as spectacled stenoderm (which see, under stenoderm).

II. a. Of or pertaining to a vampire; resembling a vampire in character; blood-sucking; extortionate; vampiric.

The strong but disinterested wish to co-operate in restoring this noble University to its natural pre-eminence by relieving it from the vampire oppression under which it has pined so long in almost lifeless exhaustion.

Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions, p. 446.

Facts and Figures

The oldest work I have with an entry on the vampire is a facsimile of Brockhaus's Bilder-Conversations-Lexikon from 1841. This will start as our base for what the vampire is, what it does, and how it can be defeated. The entry "Vampyr" can be found in volume 4, on pages 552 (translation given after):

Vampyr heißt in der Naturgeschichte eine große, in den Tropenländern heimische Art Fledermaus (s. d.); ein im Morgenlande seit alten Zeiten herrschender Aberglaube denkt sich aber unter demselben Namen gespenstische Wesen, welche des Nachts umgehen, den Schlafenden das Blut aussaugen und sie dadurch umbringen sollen. Auf diese Art Gestorbene sollten dann wieder Vampyre werden, was die alten griech. Christen schon ungefähr ebenso von Denen glaubten, welche im Kirchenbann starben und die angeblichen Gespenster derselben Brukolakä nannten. In Griechenland, Serbien, Dalmatien, Ungarn ist der Aberglaube an Vampyre noch immer verbreitet und war vor ungefähr 100 Jahren die Veranlassung zu großen Besorgnissen und gerichtlichen Untersuchungen in einigen Gegenden von Ungarn, welche die Aufmerksamkeit von ganz Europa rege machten. In einem Dorfe an der serbischen Grenze sollte nämlich ein Hayduck am Bisse eines Vampyrs gestorben und hierauf ebenfalls als Vampyr seine Freunde und Bekannten gequält, ja mehre derselben schon umgebracht haben. Seine Leiche ward daher mehre Wochen nach dem Tode wieder ausgegraben, ihr ein Pfahl durchs Herz gestoßen und der Kopf abgeschnitten, was auch mit den angeblich durch ihn Umgebrachten geschach und als ein Mittel gilt, solchen Vampyren ein Ende zu machen. Auch in Schottland und Irland ist unter den gemeinen Leuten ein ähnlicher Aberglaube verbreitet, so sehr er auch allem gesunden Menschenverstande widerstreitet. Byron hat ihn zu einem Gedicht, der deutsche Componist Marschner zu einer Oper benutzt. Bildlich werden zuweilen Wucherer und Andere, welche auf ungerechte Weise von Einzelnen oder auch von den Bewohnern eines ganzen Landes Geld erpressen und ihnen gleichsam Schweiß und Blut aussaugen, Vampyre genannt.

Vampyr, in natural history, is the name of a large bat (which see) that makes its home in tropical lands; a superstition which has ruled in eastern lands since ancient times uses the same name to refer to a ghostly being, which goes around at night sucking the blood of the sleeping and thereby killing them. Those who die by this method are supposed to then become vampires themselves; the old Greek Christians believed that this would also happen to those who died excommunicated from the church and they called the resulting spirits 'brukolakä.' The superstition surrounding vampires is still present in Greece, Serbia, Dalmatia, and Hungary; approximately 100 years ago this was the cause of great concern and judicial investigations in a number of areas in Hungary, which caught the attention of all of Europe. In a village on the Serbian border, supposedly, a Hajduk died due to a vampire bite and tormented his friends and acquaintances himself as a vampire, even killing a number of them. His corpse was dug up again a number of weeks after his death, a stake plunged through his heart and his head chopped off, and this was supposedly also done with those he killed in order to bring an end to these vampires. A similar superstition is spread among the common people of Scotland and Ireland, despite how much it goes against all healthy human understanding. Byron used it in a poem, and the German composer Marschner used it in one of his operas. Metaphorically the term vampire is also applied to usurers and others who oppress individuals or even the entire populace of a country unfairly, and thus suck their blood and sweat.

Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia, 1887, reaches to Greek myth for the origin of the vampire and also elaborates on the panic which swept central and eastern Europe; the digging up of graves is no longer confined to a few areas in Hungary. "Vampire" is found in volume 8, on page 249:

Vam'pire [Fr.], according to a superstition still existing among the lower classes in Hungary, Servia, Romania, and the Christian population of the Balkan peninsula, a kind of ghost which during the night leaves the grave and maintains a semblance of life by sucking the warm blood of living men and women. It is probable that this superstition originated from the ancient myth of the lamiæ, but it was much strengthened by the belief, common in the Middle Ages all through the Greek Church, that the bodies of those who died under the ban of the Church were kept alive by the devil, and by him sent out to ruin their friends and relatives. Early in the eighteenth century a vampire panic fell over Servia and Hungary, and spread thence into Germany. Books were written pro et contra, and thousands of graves were opened, and corpses which looked suspicious were fastened with nails and bolts to the ground, that they should not wander any more. Among the Wallachs it is still customary to drive a nail through the head of the corpse into the bottom of the coffin.

The Students Cyclopædia of 1900 clarified the connection to the ancient Greek lamiæ mentioned above, but otherwise adds no new information: "In the mythology of the ancient Greeks, beings of a similar nature existed, called the Lamias. These were beautiful women who allured youths to their embrace in order to feed on their flesh and blood" (volume 2, page 1356).

The eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1910, combines the mythological vampire and the vampire bat into a single entry; below I have only excerpted the portion that deals with the supernatural being. This entry is notable for attempting to guess at a rational explanation for why such a superstition could have arose (though it makes one wonder just how many people were buried alive back then). This entry can be found in volume 27, on page 876, and includes alternate forms of the vampire not found in my other reference works (that wayward downy feather next to your pillow? total vampire) and expands the sorts of dead who could arise as vampires (suicides, those who met a violent death, etc):

VAMPIRE, a term, apparently of Servian origin (wampir), originally applied in eastern Europe to blood-sucking ghosts, but in modern usage transferred to one or more species of blood-sucking bats inhabiting South America.

In the first-mentioned meaning a vampire is usually supposed to be the soul of a dead man which quits the buried body by night to suck the blood of living persons. Hence, when the vampire's grave is opened, his corpse is found to be fresh and rosy from the blood which he has thus absorbed. To put a stop to his ravages, a stake is driven through the corpse, or the head cut off, or the heart torn out and the body burned, or boiling water and vinegar are poured on the grave. The persons who turn vampires are generally wizards, witches, suicides and those who have come to a violent end or have been cursed by their parents or by the church. But any one may become a vampire if an animal (especially a cat) leaps over his corpse or a bird flies over it. Sometimes the vampire is thought to be the soul of a living man which leaves his body in sleep, to go in the form of a straw or fluff of down and suck the blood of other sleepers. The belief in vampires chiefly prevails in Slavonic lands, as in Russia (especially White Russia and the Ukraine), Poland, and Servia, and among the Czechs of Bohemia and the other Slavonic races of Austria. It became specially prevalent in Hungary between the years 1730 and 1735, whence all Europe was filled with reports of the exploits of vampires. Several treatises were written on the subject, among which may be mentioned Ranft's De masticatione mortuorum in lumulis (1734) and Calmet's Dissertation on the Vampires of Hungary, translated into English in 1750. It is probable that this superstition gained much ground from the reports of those who had examined the bodies of persons buried alive though believed to be dead, and was based on the twisted position of the corpse, the marks of blood on the shroud and on the face and hands — results of the frenzied struggle in the coffin before life became extinct. The belief in vampires has also taken root among the Albanians and modern Greeks, but here it may be due to Slavonic influence.

The World Book encyclopedia of 1919 mentions that the victims of vampires are often unaware of what is killing them: "According to the absurd belief, so quietly does it work that the victim is not aware of what is happening, but gradually wastes away and dies" (volume 10, page 6025). The Encyclopedia Americana of 1924 notes that this is why corpses were carefully inspected after death, in case they need special anti-vampire treatment: In some places where the belief in vampires prevails, when a person dies a careful examination is made by a skilled person lest he should have been killed by a vampire and so be liable to become one; if this is suspected, the body may be pierced with a stake cut from a green tree, the head cut off and the heart burned. This is also the process for destroying the vampire spirit in a corpse believed to be already a vampire. The belief has been treated by Philostratus and Phlegon of Tralles; has served a literary purpose in Goethe's 'Braut von Korinth' and the operas of Palma, Hart and von Lindpainter. While seemingly a primitive and savage superstition, it has survived in many forms. Consult Ralton, 'Russian Folk-tales'; Hert, 'Der Werwolf' (1862); Stoker, B., 'Dracula' (1899)" (volume 27, page 662).

Taking a peek inside modern American and European encyclopedias, we find that the Brockhaus of 1984 (volume 22, page 379) states that vampires are a variant of the traditional German blood-sucker mentioned in Martin Luther's Table Talks. It also mentions the lamia found in Johnson's Universal and the Student Cyclopædia entries, but attributes the term to Latin literature. This entry also mentions the 1913 film Dracula, and directs the reader to a separate entry on Dracula. The 1992 edition of the World Book is the first of my reference works to mention Vlad the Impaler, in its description of Stoker's Dracula: "The character of Dracula is based on Vlad Tepes, a cruel prince from Walachia (now part of Romania). Vlad was nicknamed Dracula, which in Romanian means son of the devil or son of a dragon" (volume 20, page 284). The New Standard Encyclopedia from 1993 mentions the related word "vamp," a "scheming, heartless woman who lures a man to moral destruction" and its origin in the 1914 film A Fool There Was (volume 18, page V-11). The 1997 Encyclopædia Britannica (volume 12, page 253) is the only encyclopedia I own which includes a picture (a movie still featuring Bela Lugosi in the role of Dracula). The influence of Stoker's novel and its many film adaptations surely led to the signs "known to every schoolchild" for recognizing a vampire (they have sharp fangs and "they cast no shadow and are not reflected in mirrors") and warding one off ("displaying a crucifix or sleeping with a wreath of garlic around one's neck"); this information did not appear in the older encyclopedias.

Japanese Reference Works

The entire impetus for writing this post came about because I ordered some books from Jirō Akagawa's comedic mystery series Vampire All Year Round (吸血鬼はお年ごろ), about the daughter of a legitimate vampire from Transylvania who, along with her dad, solves supernatural mysteries in Japan. The Japanese word for vampire used in the book title is 吸血鬼, kyūketsuki, which breaks down kanji-wise into "blood sucking ghost/demon;" bloodsucking (吸血) already existed as a concept, so this word attaches the primary function of a vampire to the generic Japanese term for demon or ghost, 鬼. The directly imported word ヴァンパイア (vanpaia) is also used. The Encyclopædia Heibonsha features a wonderful table showing all of the major mentions of vampires in literature and film from 1751 (Dom Augustin Calmet's Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie) through 1979, including the 1922 German film Nosferatu (volume 4, pages 179-180).

Pompeii

Bran

Our local science center is currently hosting the travelling exhibit "Pompeii: The Exhibition." I plan on viewing the exhibition tomorrow. I visited Pompeii myself on a rainy day back in 2006, along with the "secret cabinet" at the Museum of Naples, and I look forward to viewing the various artifacts. In anticipation, I decided to look up Pompeii in my various encyclopedia sets. The general caveat that will always accompany blog posts of this nature: the information stated below is quoted from these old reference works for entertainment purposes only; accuracy has not been verified. Always double-check information before citing. Books are fallible.

Illustration from the 1919 World Book

The 1919 World Book (volume 8, pages 4748-4749) has a rather short article on the subject of Pompeii; the large drawing of the forum (p. 4749) takes up nearly as much space as the text. "For over fifteen centuries after the eruption, the site of the buried cities was unknown. Pompeii lay at the mouth of the River Sarnus, near the Bay of Naples, but the great disaster so changed the geography of the region — turning the river back from its course and raising the sea beach — that men had no way of discovering the site. In fact, for a long time its very name was almost forgotten. Then, by a happy accident, interest in the buried cities was revived. In 1748 a peasant who was sinking a well in that locality found some statues and other antiquities, and this led to extensive excavations in the region" (4749). The entry does not mention specifically how the residents of Pompeii perished nor does it mention their remains, focusing instead on the makeup of the city. The 1958 World Book (volume 13, pages 6482-6484) generally copies the same text, but replaces the drawing with a lot of B&W photographs - it features more pictures of Pompeii and its artifacts than any of the other reference works I looked at. One interesting line it does add on to the original entry is a note that a description of the eruption (since the entry, like the 1919 version, does not itself go into the sordid details) can be found in a fictional account: "Lord Lytton gives a description of the tragedy in his novel The Last Days of Pompeii" (6484).

One of the many, many photographs in the 1958 World Book. A house close to where I work has a reproduction of this on their doorway. CAVE CANEM!

The 1992 World Book (volume 15, pages 656-658) features a new text, written in very simple language. It features three color photographs in the entry. This version now includes the details lacking from the previous World Books; rather than just state that the volcano erupted and the buildings were buried, the human element is brought in, beginning with Pliny the Younger's account: "The Roman writer Pliny the Younger told in a letter how he led his mother to safety through the fumes and falling stones. His uncle, the writer Pliny the Elder, commanded a fleet that rescued some people. He landed to view the eruption and died on the shore" (657). This is followed by a description of what happened to unlucky citizens of Pompeii and the archaeological significance of their mode of death: "Some of the victims were trapped in their homes and killed by hot ashes. Others breathed the poisonous fumes and died as they fled. Archaeologists find the shells (molds) of the bodies preserved in the hardened ash. By carefully pouring plaster into the shells, they can make detailed copies of the individuals, even to the expressions of agony on their faces" (657). One of the photo captions states that at this time, three-fourths of Pompeii had been excavated (658); in the previous encyclopedia editions, only half had been uncovered.

The 1910 Encyclopædia Britannica (volume 22, pages 50 to 56) features a city map on page 52, showing the extent to which the city had been excavated at the time. The article devotes most of its space to the history of the city before the volcanic eruption and to the physical description of the city at the time, as the archaeological at the time viewed it. There are some interesting anecdotes given, such as this one from Tacitus' Annals: "In A.D. 59 a tumult took place in the amphitheatre between the citizens and visitors from the nieghbouring colony of Nuceria. Many were killed and wounded on both sides. The Pompeians were punished for this violent outbreak by the prohibition of all theatrical exhibitions for ten years (Tacitus, Ann.. xiv. 17). A characteristic, though rude, painting found on the walls of one of the houses gives a representation of this event" (50). One nice feature of this entry is that it links as much historical data as it can back to Roman sources; Tacitus is cited numerous times, as is Cicero ("whose letters abound with allusions to his Pompeian villa" 50), Seneca, and Pliny.

Map from the 1910 Encyclopædia Britannica

As mentioned, the entry focuses on the description of the city as can be gleamed from the archaeological record. The main streets, for instance, "are uniformly paved with large polygonal blocks of hard basaltic lava, fitted very closely together, though now in many cases marked with deep ruts from the passage of vehicles in ancient times. They are also in all cases bordered by raised footways on both sides, paved in a similar manner; and for the convenience of foot-passengers, which was evidently a more important consideration than the obstacle which the arrangement presented to the passage of vehicles, which indeed were probably only allowed for goods traffic, these are connected from place to place by stepping-stones raised above the level of the carriage-way" (51). Numerous examples of graffiti are mentioned, the first in a footnote on the amphitheatres: "The interest taken by the Pompeians in the sports of the amphitheatre is shown by the contents of the numerous painted and scratched inscriptions relating to them which have been found in Pompeii — notices of combats, laudatory inscriptions, including even references to the admiration which gladiators won from the fair sex, &c." (53). These are mentioned again towards the end of the article: "Still more curious, and almost peculiar to Pompeii, are the numerous writings painted upon the walls, which have generally a semi-public character, such as recommendations of candidates for municipal offices, advertisements, &c., and the scratched inscriptions (graffiti), which are generally the mere expression of individual impulse and feeling, frequently amatory, and not uncommonly conveyed in rude and imperfect verses" (56). Other facts about the residences unearthed include notes on climate control ("elaborate precautions were taken against heat, but none against cold, which was patiently endured" 54) and on the tools and artifacts found: "Another curious discovery was that of the abode of a sculptor, containing his tools, as well as blocks of marble and half-finished statues. The number of utensils of various kinds found in the houses and shops is almost endless, and, as these are in most cases of bronze, they are generally in perfect preservation" (54).

The 1910 Encyclopædia Britannica article states that the population of Pompeii was probably around 20,000 (51); this is the figure given by all of my reference works except for one — the 1984 Brockhaus (volume 17, pages 165-165) estimates the population to be between 12,000 and 15,000 residents. The Britannica estimates that 10% of that population perished in the volcanic eruption, based on "the number of skeletons discovered" (51). Unlike the World Book, the Britannica makes no qualms of mentioning the bodies, even if the cause of death is not strictly given: "Almost all the skeletons and remains of bodies found in the city were discovered in similar situations, in cellars or underground apartments — those who had sought refuge in flight having apparently for the most part escaped from destruction, or having perished under circumstances where their bodies were easily recovered by the survivors. According to Cassius Dio, a large number of the inahbitants were assembled in the theatre at the time of the catastrophe, but no bodies have been found there, and they were probably sought for and removed shortly afterwards. Of late years it has been found possible in many cases to take casts of the bodies found — a complete mould having been formed around them by the fine white ashes, partially consolidated by water" (55).

The 1965 Encyclopædia Britannica (volume 18, pages 201-205) features an updated map of the city, but generally quotes verbatim the 1910 article. It does, however, make one correction regarding the design of the houses. The 1910 article has surmised that the walls facing the street were very plain (particularly in contrast to the inner courtyards), but the 1965 version gives a correction: "The careful investigation in recent years of the buildings in the eastern portion of the Strada dell' Abbondanza has shown that previous conceptions of the appearance of the exterior of the houses were entirely erroneous. The upper stories were diversified by balconies, open loggias, colonnades, etc., while the lower portions of the façades were painted, often with scenes of considerable interest" (202). The 1997 Encyclopædia Britannica (volume 9, pages 590-592), on the other hand, has a completely rewritten article, which is fairly lengthy for a Micropædia article, with an (again) updated map and a single black-and-white photograph. This entry is particularly nice for the attention it gives to the history of the lengthy archaeological excavation: "Early digging was haphazard and often irresponsible; excavators were primarily treasure seekers, hunting for imposing buildings or museum objects. Haphazard digging was brought to a stop in 1860, when the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe Fiorelli became director of the excavations. [...] Fiorelli also developed the technique of making casts of bodies by pouring cement into the hollows formed in the volcanic ash when the bodies disintegrated" (591). Similarly, there are nice notes on the cultural impact of the rediscovery of Pompeii: "The laudatory pronouncements of the eminent German classicist Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who made his first trip to Naples in 1755, and the etchings of Giambattista Piranesi did much to popularize the excavations. Naples, Pompeii, and Herculaneum became important stops on the European Grand Tour made by English visitors" (591).

Briefly returning to the 1984 Brockhaus: this was the only encyclopedia to directly mention the pornographic, which it includes in a list of the different types of graffiti found: "Wandinschriften geben Auskunft über Begebenheiten des tägl. Lebens: Geschäftsanzeigen, Wahlagitationen, Gladiatorenscherze, Liebesgeständnisse sowie pornograph. Darstellungen" (Wall inscriptions provide information about everyday life: job postings, campaign slogans, gladiator jokes, love confessions and even pornographic depictions, 165). It also gives an exact date of the eruption: August 24, 79. I shall mention one final encyclopedia, the 1993 New Standard Encyclopedia (volume 13, pages 471-473), which features very vivid, almost literary descriptions of the demise of the residents: "Out of the great, dark cloud that shot up from the mountain, masses of scorching pumice fragments, some of them as large as three inches (7.6 cm) across, rained down on Pompeii. Deadly sulfurous gases emitted by the hot material killed many persons as they ran through the streets, and killed some who fled to their cellars or huddled in inner rooms to escape the falling rock. Others waited until the doorways of their homes were blocked, then escaped from second-story windows, only to fall in the continuing lethal deluge. When 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 m) of the pumice covered the city a fine ash moistened by steam began to fall. Breathing in this smothering substance, the people who had survived so far but had not yet escaped out to sea were suffocated" (472). This encyclopedia, in contrast to the others, claims that nearly three-fourths of the population perished in the eruption. It also, like the 1997 Encyclopædia Britannica, focuses on the cultural impacts the archaeological discovery of Pompeii caused: "Antiquities recovered from Pompeii were carried off to museums, and created a trend toward neoclassic design that swept the art world. [...] A romantic novel, The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, captured the public imagination and made the lost city familiar to all" (473).

Update: The exhibit (Pompeii: The Exhibition) was great. It first led you through multiple galleries meant to give an impression of everyday life in the city. Then there was a "4D" show you had to pass through representing the eruption, followed by a final gallery consisting of real casts of victims. The exhibit quoted the same date as the Brockhaus: August 24, 79. It said the city had more inhabitants, though.

This boar and dog have spouts in their mouths; they were originally part of a fountain.

There were multiple casts of people, but this one (a dog) stuck out to me the most.