Category The Encyclopædia Britannica – 11th Edition – 1910

Vintage Base Ball

Bran

A batter for one of St. Louis's vintage base ball teams swings at a pitch.

While on a walk through St. Louis's Lafayette Park this past weekend, we encountered a game of vintage base ball. There are four vintage base ball teams in St. Louis - the Saint Louis Brown Stockings, the Saint Louis Perfectos, the Lafayette Cyclone Base Ball Club, and the Saint Louis Unions. In this case, the Brown Stockings and the Cyclones were facing off. The teams play with the rules and equipment used in base ball (two words then!) as of 1860, which you can see here on the Brown Stockings' club website.

It's amazing how often the rules (and spelling) of base ball/base-ball/baseball have changed over the years. I looked up base ball in both my counterfeit copy of the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (~1889) and in my handy edition copy of the 11th (1910).

Here are some excerpts from the 9th edition entry on base ball (in my copy, volume 3, pp. 406-407); the highlight of which seems to be that base ball is a much quicker game than its English relative (amusing, considering the most common modern complaint against base ball seems to be its speed):

Americans do not appreciate the patience of Englishmen, and do not care to witness a cricket match which may extend to three days, and then remain undecided, whereas the average time of a base ball match is from two hours to two hours and a half.

The scene chosen for this pastime should be a clear level piece of turf, not less than 500 feet by 350 feet. The following diagram shows the laying out of the ground.

Diagram of a Base Ball field from the 9th Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica

Formerly, nine a side was the usual number of players; but, latterly, an additional man has been introduced as right short-stop, and the sides increased to ten. Their positions are marked in the above diagram. The theory of the game is that one side takes the field, and the other goes in. The pitcher then delivers the ball to the striker, who endeavours to hit it in such a direction as to elude the fielders, and enable him to run round all the base lines home without being put out.

The ball must weigh not less than 5 ounces or more than 5¼ ounces avoirdupois [Note: avoirdupois means that the weight system used has 16 ounces = 1 pound], must be not less than 9 inches or more than 9¼ inches in circumference, and must be composed of 1 ounce avoirdupois of vulcanized india-rubber, covered with worsted and leather, red being the most suitable colour for the latter. The bat must be circular in shape, not exceeding 2½ inches in diameter at any part, or 42 inches in length, and must be made exclusively of wood.

In delivering the ball, the pitcher must not move either foot outside the limits of the square, and the hand must not be raised higher than the hip. All balls delivered over the home base, and at the height requested by the striker, are fair balls. All other balls are unfair or called balls, and if three occur in succession the striker is allowed to take the first base, and any other players move on a base accordingly. A striker may, however, take an unfair ball at his own risk. Balking, or pretending to deliver the ball and not doing so, is inadmissible, and any player, on first, second, or third base, is allowed to run a base whenever balking is attempted. If, after being warned by the umpire, three balks are made during the same innings, the out side at once forfeit the game.

Should the striker fail to strike three fairly delivered balls, he must run the first base. [...] A batsman is out — (1.) If a fair ball be caught before touching the ground, no matter how held by the fielder catching it, or whether the ball first touches the person of another fielder or not, provided it be not caught by the cap; (2.) If a foul ball be similarly held, or if it be so held after touching the ground but ounce; (3.) If a fair ball be securely held by a fielder while touching the first base with any part of his person before the base-runner touches said base, after hitting a fair ball; (4.) If the batsman, after striking three times at the ball and failing to hit it, and, running to first base, fails to touch that base before the ball is legally held there; (5.) If, after the batsman has similarly failed to hit the ball, it be caught either before touching the ground, or after touching the ground but once; (6.) If the batsman wilfully strikes at the ball to hinder the ball from being caught; (7.) If the batsman hit the ball on a called foul strike, and it be caught either fair or foul, or if he make two called foul strikes.

The pastime requires good catching, throwing, and running powers, combined with courage, nerve, good judgement, and quick perception of what to do in the field. The great draw-back os so much being left to the umpire, and his decision being so frequently called for. Hardly a ball is pitched or struck, or a base run without his being called on for a decision under some rule or other, whereas the details of the game should be so plain and clear as only to call for an umpire's decision under exceptional circumstances. The attitude of the striker is not an elegant one, and the pitcher is allowed to keep the former's muscles too long on the stretch before actually delivering the ball. Base ball is a quicker and more lively pastime than the great English national game of cricket, which is the chief thing to be said in its favour.

A couple of decades later, the sport, now hyphenated, had changed a good bit. It was remarkable to me that Japan gets a mention in the 11th edition; it's love of baseball stretches back farther than I had thought. Overhand throwing became permissible, the players were now allowed gloves, and the catcher, now decked out in safety gear, was positioned right behind the batter. Here are some excerpts from the much longer entry in the 11th edition (volume 3, pp. 458-461):

BASE-BALL (so-called from the bases and ball used), the national summer sport of the United States, popular also throughout Canada and in Japan. Its origin is obscure. According to some authorities, it is derived from the old English game of rounders (q.v.), several variations of which were played in America during the colonial period; according to other authorities, its resemblance to rounders is merely a coincidence, and it had its origin in the United States, probably at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839, when, it is said, Abner Doubleday (later a general in the U.S. army) devised a scheme for playing it.

In spite of its popularity, the game acquired certain undesirable adjuncts. The betting and pool selling evils became prominent, and before long the game was in thorough disrepute. It was not only generally believed that the matches were not played on their merits, but it was known that players themselves were not above selling contests. At that time many of the journals of the day foretold the speedy downfall of the sport. A convention of those interested financially and otherwise in the game, was held in 1867 in Philadelphia, and an effort was made to effect a reformation.

For some years the National League consisted of twelve clubs organized as stock companies, representing cities as far apart as Boston and St Louis, but in 1900 the number was reduced to eight, namely, Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Cincinnati, New York, Pittsburg, Philadelphia and St Louis. Certain aggressive and dissatisfied elements took advantage of this change to organize a second great professional association under the presidency of B. B. Johnson, the "American League," of eight clubs, six of them in cities where the National League was already represented.

Each side has nine turns, or innings, at bat, unless the side last at bat does not need its ninth innings in order to win; a tie at the end of the ninth innings makes additional innings neccessary. A full game usually takes from 1½ to 2 hrs. to play. Three batsmen are put out in each innings, and the side scoring the greatest number of runs (complete encircling of the bases without being out out) wins.

The catcher and first-baseman (v. infra) may wear a glove of any size on one hand; the gloves worn by all other players may not measure more than 14 in. round the palm nor weigh more than 10 oz.

The pitcher, who delivers the ball to the batsman, is the most important member of the side. In the act of pitching, which is throwing either over or underhand, he must keep one foot in contact with a white plate, called the pitcher's plate, 24 in. long and 6 in. wide, placed 60.5 ft. from the back of the home-base. Before 1875 the pitcher was obliged to deliver the ball with a full toss only, but about that time a disguised underhand throw, which greatly increased the pace, began to be used so generally that it was soon legalized, and the overhand throw followed as a matter of course. [...] Change of pace, disguised as well as possible, is also an important part of pitching strategy, as well as variation of the delivery and the play upon the known weaknesses or idiosyncrasies of the bastman.

The catcher wears a mask, a breast-pad, and a large glove, without which the position would be a very dangerous one.

Art: Desire

Bran

An eel looks at the centerfold of an erotic Play-eel magazine while dreaming of fried shrimp.

I watched a “Bizarre Beasts” YouTube video on eels. In short, eels do not have a functional reproductive system until the end of their lives, at which point their digestive system essentially vanishes and they starve to death.

From the 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1910, volume 9, pp. 8-9):

The majority of the eels captured for market are females with the ovaries in an immature condition. The male eel was first discovered in 1873 by Syrski at Trieste, the testis being described by hin as a lobed elongated organ, in the same relative position as the ovary in the female, surrounded by a smooth surface without laminae. He did not find ripe spermatozoa. He discovered the male by examining small specimens, all the larger being female. L. Jacoby, a later observer, found no males exceeding 19 in. in length, while the female may reach a length of 39 in. or more. Dr C. G. J. Petersen, in a paper published in 1896, states that in Denmark two kinds of eels are distinguished by the fishermen, namely, yellow eels and silver eels. The silver eels are further distinguished by the shape of the snout and the size of the eyes. The snout in front of the eyes is not flat, as in the yellow eels, but high and compressed, and therefore appears more pointed, while the eyes are much larger and directed outwards. In both kinds there are males and females, but Peterson shows that the yellow eels change into silver eels when they migrate to the sea. The sexual organs in the silver eels are more developed than in the yellow eels, and the former have almost or entirely ceased to take food. The male silver eels are from 11½ to 19 in. in length, the females from 16½ to about 39 in. It is evident, therefore, that if eels only spawn once, they do not all reach the same size when they become sexually mature. [...]

There is every reason to believe that eels and conger spawn but once in their lives, and die soon after they have discharged their generative products. When kept in aquaria, both male and female conger are vigorous and voracious. The males sooner or later cease to feed, and attain to the sexually mature condition, emitting ripe milt when handled and gently squeezed. They live in this condition five or six months, taking no food and showing gradual wasting and disease of the bodily organs. The eyes and skin become ulcerated, the sight is entirely lost, and the bones become soft through loss of lime. The females also after a time cease to feed, and live in a fasting condition for five or six months, during which time the ovaries develop and reach great size and weight, while the bones become soft and the teeth disappear. The female, however, always dies in confinement before the ova are perfectly ripe and before they are liberated from the ovarian tissue. The absence of some necessary condition, perhaps merely of the pressure which exists at the bottom of the sea, evidently prevents the complete development of the ovary. The invariable death of the fish in the same almost ripe condition leads to the conclusion that under normal conditions the fish dies after the mature ova have been discharged.

I included in my painting a couple of Leptocephali, which is one of the early larval stages of the eel. Here's their representation from the Encyclopaedia Britannica entry quoted above:

Gauss

Bran

I am taking a class on linear algebra at the moment, which means that I am breathing in matrices and Gaussian elimination on a daily basis. There is a footnote in our textbook where row reduction algorithms are discussed: "The algorithm here is a variant of what is commonly called Gaussian elimination. A similar elimination method for linear systems was used by Chinese mathematicians in about 250 B.C. The process was unknown in Western culture until the nineteenth century, when a famous German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss, discovered it. A German engineer, Wilhelm Jordan, popularized the algorithm in an 1888 text on geodesy" (Linear Algebra and its Applications, 4th edition, by David C. Lay - 2012 - p. 12). Geodesy is mathematically determining the size and shape of the Earth. I remembered Gauss's name coming up in my statistics class; it turns out his contributions to both linear algebra and statistics were secondary byproducts of his interest in geodesy. I decided to look him up in my reference works and discovered that his contributions to mathematics and science, in general, were so great that Gaussian elimination isn't even mentioned.

Even though it was just published 32 years after Gauss's death, Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia (1887) features a compact summary of his life and accomplishments: Gauss (Karl Friedrich), b. in Brunswick, Germany, Apr. 30, 1777; was educated at the expense of the duke of Brunswick, who had heard of his precocious mathematical talents; solved when eighteen years old the problem of the division of the circle into seventeen equal parts, and afterwards became famous for skill in the indeterminate analysis and in curious numerical questions; demonstrated Fermat's theorem; became in 1807 professor of astronomy at Göttingen and director of the observatory; received in 1810 the Lalande medal for calculating by a new method the orbits of Ceres and Pallas; was made in 1816 a court councillor, and in 1845 a privy councillor of Hanover; made after 1821 important improvements in geodetic methods and instruments; after 1831 devoted much attention to terrestrial magnetism. D. at Göttingen Feb 23, 1855. Gauss is regarded as one of the first mathematicians of this century (vol. 3, p. 403).

The 11th edition Encyclopaedia Britannica (1910) is a bit more thorough. The article on Gauss can be found in volume 11, beginning with the fact that he was "born of humble parents" (535). Some fun extracts (pp. 535-536):

In 1807 he was appointed director of the Göttingen observatory, an office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never slept away from under the roof of his observatory, except on one occasion, when he accepted an invitation from Baron von Humboldt to attend a meeting of natural philosophers in Berlin. [...] With [Wilhelm] Weber's assistance he erected in 1833 in Göttingen a magnetic observatory free from iron (as Humboldt and F. J. D. Arago had previously done on a smaller scale), where he made magnetic observations, and from this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals to the neighboring town, thus showing the practicality of an electromagnetic telegraph. [...] Running through these volumes in order, we have in the second the memoir, Summatio quarundam serierum singularium, the memoirs on the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion of complex numbers of the form a + bi was first introduced into the theory of numbers; and included in the Nachlass are some valuable tables. That for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving the complete period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a specimen of the extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical calculations, and the amount of work gone through in the construction of the table of the number of the classes of binary quadratic forms must also have been tremendous.

A much longer entry on Gauss appears in the Macropaedia section of the 15th-edition Encyclopaedia Britannica (here the 1997 printing, volume 19, pp. 697-698). This article comments a little bit on his personal life outside of his mathematical discoveries, and also mentions his contributions to statistics (couched in the context of his interest in geodesy); here is a fraction of the details found within:

His own dictum, "Mathematics, queen of the sciences, and arithmetic, the queen of mathematics," aptly conveys his perception of the pivotal role of mathematics in science. [...] His first wife died in 1809, after a marriage of four years and soon after the birth of their third child. From his second marriage (1810-31) were born two sons and a daughter. [...] By introducing what is now known as the Gaussian error curve, he showed how probability could be represented by a bell-shaped curve, commonly called the normal curve of variation, which is basic to descriptions of statistically distributed data. [...] The most important result of their [Weber + Gauss's] work in electromagnetism was the development, by other workers, of electric telegraphy. Because their finances were limited, their experiments were on a small scale; Gauss was rather frightened at the thought of worldwide communication. [...] Teaching was his only aversion, and, thus, he had only a few students. Instead he effected the development of mathematics through his publications, about 155 titles, to which he devoted the greatest care. Three principles guided his work: "Pauca, sed matura" ("Few, but ripe"), his favourite saying; the motto "Ut nihil amplius desiderandum relictum sit" ("That nothing further remains to be done"); and his requirement of utmost rigour. It is evident from his posthumous works that there are extensive and important papers that he never published because, in his opinion, they did not satisfy one of these principles. He pursued a research topic in mathematics only when he might anticipate meaningful relationships of ideas and results that were commendable because of their elegance or generality.

A fun text in general for looking at the lives of great scientists and mathematicians comes from another prolific writer, Isaac Asimov, in Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology: The Lives & Achievements of 1195 Great Scientists from Ancient Times to the Present; I have the revised version from 1972. The entries in this book are arranged chronologically, but there is a handy alphabetical index at the front of the book, which helped me quickly locate the biography of Gauss on pages 249-251. My favorite quips:

At the age of three, he was already correcting his father's sums, and all his life he kept all sorts of numerical records, even useless ones such as the length of the lives of famous men, in days. He was virtually mad over numbers. [...] All of this was not without a price, for his intense concentration on the great work that poured form him withdrew him sometimes from contact with humanity. There is a story that when he was told, in 1807, that his wife was dying, he looked up from the problem that engaged him and muttered, "Tell her to wait a moment till I'm through." [...] His agile mind never seemed to cease. At the age of sixty-two he taught himself Russian. [...] Each of his two wives died young and only one of his six children survived him. His life was filled with personal tragedy, and though he died wealthy, he also died embittered.